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Book Info
Book Name: Pharmaceutical Microbiology by Ashutosh Kar
Author: Ashutosh Kar
Publication: New Age International Publishers
For: B.Pharm and D.Pharm Students
Downloading Link: Click Here to Download
Contents
3.3.4.3. Linnear Binomial Scheme...763.3.4.4. Phenotypic Classification...773.3.4.5. Microscopic Examination...793.3.4.6. Cataloguing rRNA...803.3.4.7. Computer Aided Classification...813.3.4.8. Bacterial Classification...823.4 Taxonomy...873.5 The Kingdom Prokaryotae...883.5.1. Actinomyctes...893.5.1.1. General Characteristics...893.5.1.2. Significance of Actinomycetes...903.5.1.3. Classification...913.5.1.3.1. Whole Cell Carbohydrate Patterns of AerobicActinomycetes...913.5.1.3.2. Major Constituents of Cell Wall Types ofActinomycetes...913.5.1.3.3. Groups of Actinomycetes Based on WholeCell Carbohydrate Pattern and CellWall Type...923.5.1.3.4. Actinomycetes with Multiocular Sporangia...923.5.1.4. Actinomycetes and Related Organisms...933.5.1.4.1. Group...933.5.1.4.2. Genus...943.5.1.4.3. Order...973.5.1.4.4. Family...983.5.2. Bacteria...1023.5.2.1. Salient Features...1033.5.2.2. Structure and Form of the Bacterial Cell...1043.5.2.2.1. Size and Shape...1053.5.2.2.2. Structure...1053.5.3. Rickettsia and Coxiella...1073.5.4. Spirochaetes...1084. Identification of Microorganisms...1124.1 Introduction...1124.2 Morphology...1134.3 Selective and Diagnostic Media...1134.3.1. Differential Media...1164.3.1.1. Eosin Methylene Blue Agar [EMB-Agar]...116(xi)4.3.1.2. MacConkey Agar...1164.3.1.3. Hektoen Enteric Agar [HE-Agar]...1164.3.2. Enrichment Media...1164.3.2.1. Blood Agar...1164.3.2.2. Chocolate Agar...1174.3.3. Characteristic Media...1174.3.3.1. Triple Sugar Iron Agar [TSI-Agar]...1174.4 Cultural Characteristics...1194.5 Biochemical Tests (or Properties)...1204.5.1. Carbohydrate (Sugar) Fermentation...1204.5.2. Litmus Milk...1204.5.3. Indole Production...1204.5.4. Methyl Red Test [MR-Test]...1214.5.5. Voges-Proskauer Test [VP-Test]...1214.5.6. Citrate Utilization...1214.5.7. Nitrate Reduction...1224.5.8. Ammonia Production...1224.5.9. Urease Test...1224.5.10. Production of Hydrogen Sulphide...1234.5.11. Reduction of Methylene Blue...1234.5.12. Production of Catalase [Tube Catalase Test]...1234.5.13. Oxidase Reaction...1234.5.14.Egg-Yolk Reaction...1244.5.15. Growth in Presence of Potassium Cyanide...1244.5.16. Composite Media...1244.6 Profile of Microbial Stains...1274.6.1. Preparation of Bacterial Specimens for Light Microscopy...1284.6.1.1. Standard Preparations...1284.6.1.2. Preparation of Smears for Staining...1284.6.1.3. Gram Staining...1294.6.1.4. Differential Staining...1314.6.1.4.1. Gram’s Stain...1314.6.1.4.2. Acid-Fast Stain...1314.6.1.5. Miscellaneous Staining...1314.6.1.5.1. Capsule Staining...1324.6.1.5.2. Endospore Staining...1324.6.1.5.3. Flagella Staining...133(xii)4.6.2. Microscopy : The Differential Instruments...1334.6.2.1. Concepts...1334.6.2.2. Microscope Variants...1344.6.2.2.1. Bright-Field Microscope...1344.6.2.2.2. Dark-Field Microscope...1364.6.2.2.3. Phase-Contrast Microscope...1364.6.2.2.4. Differential Interference Contrast(DIC) Microscope...1394.6.2.2.5. Fluorescence Microscope...1394.6.2.2.6. Electron Microscope...1414.6.2.2.6.1. Transmission ElectronMicroscope (TEM)...1424.6.2.2.6.2. Scanning ElectronMicroscope (SEM)...1435. Nutrition, Cultivation and Isolation : Bacteria-Actinomycetes-Fungi-Viruses...1465.1 Introduction...1465.2 Bacteria...1465.2.1. Nutrition of Microorganisms...1465.2.2. Cultivation of Bacteria...1475.2.2.1. Binary Fission...1485.2.2.2. Normal Growth Curve of Microorganisms...1495.2.2.3. The Lag Phase of Microbial Growth...1505.2.2.4. Translational Periods Between Various Growth Phases...1505.2.2.5. Synchronous Growth...1515.2.2.6. Effect of Nutritional Concentration Vs Growth Rate ofBacterial Culture...1525.2.2.7. Growth Determining Techniques...1525.2.3. Isolation of Bacteria...1545.2.3.1. Selective and Diagnostic Media...1545.2.3.2. Bismuth Sulphate Agar...1545.2.3.3. Selective Media for Staphylococci...1555.3 Actinomycetes...1555.4 Fungi...1565.4.1. Reproduction of Fungi...1585.4.1.1. Asexual Reproduction...1585.4.1.2. Sexual Reproduction...1595.4.2. Industrial Importance of Fungi...159(xiii)5.4.2.1. Production of Wines and Beer...1595.4.2.2. Production of Bakery Products...1605.4.2.3. Production of Cheeses...1605.5 Viruses...1605.5.1. Bacteriophages...1615.5.2. Growth of Bacteriophages in the Laboratory...1645.5.3. Bacteriophage Lambda : The Lysogenic Cycle...1646. Microbial Genetics and Variations...1676.1 Introduction...1676.2 Microbial Genetics...1696.2.1. Structure and Function of Genetic Material...1696.2.2. Genotype and Phenotype...1706.2.3. Adaption and Mutation...1706.2.4. DNA and Chromosomes...1716.2.5. DNA Replication...1726.2.6. Rate DNA Replication...1746.2.7. Flow of Genetic Information...1756.2.8. Bacterial Transformation...1776.2.9. Bacterial Transcription...1806.2.10. Bacterial Translation...1826.2.11. Bacterial Conjugation...1866.2.12. Bacterial Transduction...1886.2.12.1. Generalized Transduction...1896.2.12.2. Specialized Transduction...1906.2.13. Bacterial Transfection...1926.2.14. Phage Conversion...1926.3 Microbial Variations [Genetic Manipulation in Microorganisms]...1937. Microbial Control By Physical and Chemical Methods...1987.1 Introduction...1987.2 Physical Methods...1987.2.1. Heat...1997.2.2. Moist Heat...2007.2.2.1. Boiling...2017.2.2.2. Autoclaving...2017.2.2.3. Pasteurization...2047.2.2.4. Dry-Heat Sterilization...2057.2.2.5. Filtration...205(xiv)7.2.2.6. Cold...2077.2.2.7. Desiccation...2087.2.2.8. Osomotic Pressure...2087.2.2.9. Radiation...2097.2.2.9.1. Ionizing Radiation...2097.2.2.9.2. Nonionizing Radiation...2107.3 Chemical Methods...2147.3.1. Effective Disinfection—Fundamentals...2147.3.2. Disinfectant—Critical Evaluation...2157.3.2.1. Use-Dilution Tests...2157.3.2.2. Filter Paper Method...2167.3.3. Disinfectant Variants...2167.3.3.1. Alcohols...2167.3.3.2. Aldehydes...2177.3.3.3. Chlorohexidine...2187.3.3.4. Gaseous Chemosterilizers...2187.3.3.5. Heavy Metals and Derivatives...2197.3.3.6. Halogens...2197.3.3.7. Organic Acids and Derivatives...2217.3.3.8. Oxidizing Agents...2227.3.3.9. Phenol and Phenolics...2237.3.3.10. Quaternary Ammonium Compounds [QUATS]...2247.3.3.11. Surface-Active Agents...2267.4 Experimental Parameters Influencing the Antimicrobial Agent Activity...2287.4.1. Population Size...2287.4.2. Population Composition...2287.4.3. Concentration of Antimicrobial Agent...2297.4.4. Duration of Exposure...2297.4.5.Temperature...2297.4.6. Local Environment...2298. Sterility Testing : Pharmaceutical Products...2318.1 Introduction...2318.2 Test for Sterility : Pharmaceutical Products...2338.2.1. Membrane Filtration...2338.2.2. Direct Inoculation...2398.2.2.1. Nutrient Broth...2398.2.2.2. Cooked Meat Medium and Thioglycollate Medium...2408.2.2.3. Sabouraud Medium...240(xv)8.3 Sampling : Probability Profile...2438.4 Overall Conclusions...2459. Immune Systems...2469.1 Introduction...2469.1.1. Discrimination...2479.1.2. Specificity...2479.1.3. Anamnesis...2479.1.4. Transferability by Living Cells...2479.2 Types of Specific Immunity...2489.2.1. Acquired Immunity...2489.2.2. Active Immunity...2499.2.3. Cell-Mediated Immunity...2499.2.4. Congenital Immunity...2499.2.5. Herd Immunity...2499.2.6. Humoral Immuity [or B-Cell Mediated Immunity]...2499.2.7. Local Immunity...2509.2.8. Natural Immunity...2509.2.9. Passive Immunity...2509.3 Duality of Immune Systems...2509.4 Immunological Memory...2519.5 Natural Resistance and Nonspecific Defence Mechanisms...2529.5.1. Natural Resistance...2539.5.1.1. Species Resistance...2539.5.1.2. Racial Resistance...2539.5.1.3. Individual Resistance...2549.5.1.4. External Defence Mechanisms...2549.5.2. Internal Defense Mechanisms...2569.5.3. Nonspecific Defense Mechanisms...2569.5.3.1. Complement System...2579.5.3.2. Phagocytosis...2599.5.3.2.1. Functions of Phagocytes...2609.5.3.2.2. Mechanism of Phagocytosis...2609.5.3.3. Natural Killer Cells [NK Cells]...2629.5.3.4. Interferons [IFNs]...2639.5.3.4.1. Salient Features...2639.5.3.4.2. Interferon : An Ideal Antiviral Substance...264(xvi)(xvii)9.5.3.4.3. Interferon Based on RecombinantDNA Technology...2649.5.3.4.4. Classical Recombinant Interferons [r IFNs]...26510. Microbiological (Microbial) Assays : Antibiotics–Vitamins–Amino Acids...26810.1 Introduction...26810.1.1. Importance and Usefulness...26810.1.2. Principle...26910.1.3. Methodologies...26910.1.3.1. Cylinder-Plate Method...26910.1.3.2. Turbidimetric (or Tube Assay) Method...26910.1.4. Present Status of Assay Methods...27010.2 Variants in Assay Profile...27010.2.1. Calibration of Assay...27010.2.2.Precision of Assay...27110.2.3. Accuracy of Assay...27210.2.4. Evaluation of Assay Performance...27210.3 Types of Microbiological (Microbial) Assays...27310.3.1. Agar-Plate Diffusion Assays (Method A)...27310.3.1.1. One-Dimensional Assay...27310.3.1.2. 2D-or 3D-Assay...27410.3.1.3. Dynamics of Zone Formation...27410.3.1.4. Management and Control of Reproducibility...27510.3.1.5. Measurement of Zone of Inhibition...27710.3.1.6. Calibration...27710.3.1.6.1. Standard Curves...27710.3.1.6.2. 2-By-2-Assay...27810.3.2.Rapid-Reliable-Reproducible Microbial Assay Methods...27910.3.2.1. Urease Activity...27910.3.2.2. Luciferase Assay...28010.4 Radioenzymatic [Transferase] Assays...28110.4.1. Calibration...28210.4.2. Non-Isotopic Modification...28310.5 Analytical Methods for Microbial Assays...28310.5.1. High Performance Liquid Chromatography [HPLC]...28310.5.2.Reverse-Phase Chromatography [RPC]...28610.5.3. Ion-Pair (or Paired-Ion) Chromatography [IPC]...28610.6 Examples of Pharmaceutical Microbial Assays...28710.6.1.Antibiotic Assays...28710.6.1.2. Standard Preparation and Units of Activity...28710.6.1.2. Preparation of Standard Solution...28910.6.1.3. Preparation of Sample Solution...28910.6.1.4. Test Organisms...29110.6.1.5. Preparation of Inoculum...29410.6.1.5.1. For Method A...29410.6.1.5.2. For Method B...29410.6.1.6. Temperature Control...29410.6.1.7. Spectrophotometer...29510.6.1.8. Cylinder-Plate Assay Receptacles...29510.6.1.9. Turbidimetric Assay Receptacles...29510.6.1.10. Assay Designs...29510.6.1.10.1. Methods...296[A] Cylinder-Plate or Cup-Plate Method...296A-1. One Level Assay with Standard Curve...297A-2. Two Level Factorial Assay...298A-3. Other Designs...298[B] Turbidimetric or Tube Assay Method...29810.7 Assay of Antibiotics by Turbidimetric (or Nephelometric) Methods...30010.7.1. Assay of Chlorotetracycline...30010.7.2. Cognate Assays...30110.7.3. Assay of Vitamins...30110.7.3.1. Calcium Pantothenate...30210.7.3.2. Niacin (or Niacinamide)...30410.7.3.2. Vitamin B12 [or Cyanocobalamin]...30610.7.4. Assay of Amino Acids...307Glossary...308Index...34
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